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</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="color: #202122;background-color:#b0c4de">Constitutional Protection Movement</th></tr><tr style="display:none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant" style="font-size: 1rem;"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%AD%B7%E6%B3%95" class="extiw external" title="wikt:護法">護法</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%81%8B%E5%8B%95" class="extiw external" title="wikt:運動">運動</a></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans" style="font-size: 1rem;">护法运动</span></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Hùfǎ yùndòng</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">hu<sup>4</sup>-fa<sup>3</sup> yün<sup>4</sup>-tung<sup>5</sup></span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2">

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<p>The <b>Constitutional Protection Movement</b> (<a href="Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hant">護法運動</span>) was a series of movements led by <a href="Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun Yat-sen</a> to resist the <a href="Beiyang_government" title="Beiyang government">Beiyang government</a> between 1917 and 1922, in which Sun established <a href="Government_of_the_Republic_of_China_in_Guangzhou" title="Government of the Republic of China in Guangzhou">another government</a> in <a href="Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a> as a result. It was known as the <b>Fourth Revolution</b> by the <a href="Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a>. The constitution that it intended to protect was the <a href="Provisional_Constitution_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Provisional Constitution of the Republic of China">Provisional Constitution of the Republic of China</a>. The first movement lasted from 1917 to 1920; the second from 1921 to 1922. An attempted third movement, begun in 1923, ultimately became the genesis for the <a href="Northern_Expedition" title="Northern Expedition">Northern Expedition</a> in 1926.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origin">Origin</h2></div>

<p>After the <a href="Xinhai_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Xinhai Revolution">Xinhai Revolution</a> in 1911, the newly established <a href="Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a>, pursuant to its Provisional Constitution, held the first parliamentary election in February 1913, which then convened as the <a href="National_Assembly_of_the_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="National Assembly of the Republic of China">National Assembly of the Republic of China</a> for the first time on April 8. The <a href="Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a> won a majority of the seats, and <a href="Song_Jiaoren" title="Song Jiaoren">Song Jiaoren</a> was designated to form the cabinet. He was assassinated by President <a href="Yuan_Shikai" title="Yuan Shikai">Yuan Shikai</a> shortly after, however, prompting the Kuomintang to call for the <a href="Second_Revolution_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Revolution (China)">Second Revolution</a>. Yuan Shikai repressed the resistance with force, forcing Sun Yat-sen and other leaders of the Kuomintang to flee abroad to <a href="Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>.

</p><p>Yuan Shikai dissolved the parliament as well as abolishing the Provisional Constitution, eventually trying to become emperor. In December 1915, <a href="Cai_E" title="Cai E">Cai E</a> and others launched the <a href="National_Protection_War" title="National Protection War">National Protection War</a> against Yuan Shikai and achieved success. Yuan Shikai was forced to abdicate and died on June 6, 1916.

</p><p>After the death of Yuan Shikai, <a href="Li_Yuanhong" title="Li Yuanhong">Li Yuanhong</a> succeeded him as president. <a href="Duan_Qirui" title="Duan Qirui">Duan Qirui</a> was re-appointed prime minister, and the old parliament was restored. However, Li and Duan had a major disagreement shortly after on whether or not to enter <a href="World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> and declare war on Germany. Duan insisted on joining the war while Li and the parliament were more guarded on the matter. Li Yuanhong removed Duan from office and called for national military support. Monarchist general <a href="Zhang_Xun" title="Zhang Xun">Zhang Xun</a> took the opportunity to enter Beijing with force. He then dissolved the parliament and attempted to restore <a href="Puyi" title="Puyi">Puyi</a> and the <a href="Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> on July 1, in what is known as the <a href="Manchu_Restoration" title="Manchu Restoration">Manchu Restoration</a>. The restoration was repressed by Duan Qirui five days later. Li resigned from the presidency and was succeeded by <a href="Feng_Guozhang" title="Feng Guozhang">Feng Guozhang</a>. Duan re-established the new government and, with <a href="Liang_Qichao" title="Liang Qichao">Liang Qichao</a>, convoked a new senate.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_First_Constitutional_Protection_Movement">The First Constitutional Protection Movement</h2></div>

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</style><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">First Constitutional Protection Movement</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of <a href="Warlord_Era" title="Warlord Era">Warlord Era</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td>July 1917<span style="display: none;"> (<span class="bday dtstart published updated itvstart">1917-07</span>)</span> – January 24, 1920<span style="display: none;"> (<span class="dtend itvend">1920-01-24</span>)</span></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location"><a href="Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">China</a></div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status">

Peace settlement after constitutionalist defeat, Guangxi clique takes control of the Southern Government</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;">

<p><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="Beiyang_government" title="Beiyang government">Beiyang government</a>

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<ul><li><a href="Zhili_clique" title="Zhili clique">Zhili clique</a></li>

<li><a href="Anhui_clique" title="Anhui clique">Anhui clique</a></li></ul></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em">

<p><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="Constitutional_Protection_Junta" title="Constitutional Protection Junta">Constitutional Protection Junta</a>

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<ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a></li>

<li><a href="Yunnan_clique" title="Yunnan clique">Yunnan clique</a></li>

<li><a href="Old_Guangxi_clique" title="Old Guangxi clique">Guangxi clique</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders and leaders</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;">

<span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="Feng_Guozhang" title="Feng Guozhang">Feng Guozhang</a><br><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="Xu_Shichang" title="Xu Shichang">Xu Shichang</a><br><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="Cao_Kun" title="Cao Kun">Cao Kun</a><br><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="Wu_Peifu" title="Wu Peifu">Wu Peifu</a><br><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="Duan_Qirui" title="Duan Qirui">Duan Qirui</a></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em">

<span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun Yat-sen</a><br><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="Tang_Jiyao" title="Tang Jiyao">Tang Jiyao</a><br><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="Wu_Tingfang" class="mw-redirect" title="Wu Tingfang">Wu Tingfang</a><br><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="Tang_Shaoyi" title="Tang Shaoyi">Tang Shaoyi</a><br><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="Hu_Hanmin" title="Hu Hanmin">Hu Hanmin</a><br><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="Lu_Rongting" title="Lu Rongting">Lu Rongting</a><br><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="Cen_Chunxuan" title="Cen Chunxuan">Cen Chunxuan</a><br><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="Lin_Baoyi_(admiral)" title="Lin Baoyi (admiral)">Lin Baoyi</a><br><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="Cheng_Biguang" title="Cheng Biguang">Cheng Biguang</a><br><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="Li_Liejun" title="Li Liejun">Li Liejun</a><br><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9D%8E%E7%A6%8F%E6%9E%97" class="extiw external" title="zh:李福林">Li Fulin</a><br><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> Xu Chongzhi<br><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="Chen_Jiongming" title="Chen Jiongming">Chen Jiongming</a></td></tr></tbody></table>

<p>In July 1917, Sun Yat-sen arrived in Guangzhou from Shanghai, and telegrammed the original members of parliament in Peking to come to Guangzhou and establish a new government. The Naval Minister <a href="Cheng_Biguang" title="Cheng Biguang">Cheng Biguang</a> arrived in Guangzhou on July 22 with nine ships to support Sun Yat-sen.

</p><p>On August 25, approximately 100 of the original members of parliament convened a conference in Guangzhou and passed a resolution establishing a <a href="Constitutional_Protection_Junta" title="Constitutional Protection Junta">military government in Guangzhou</a> to protect the Provisional Constitution. The military government consisted of a <a href="Generalissimo" title="Generalissimo">generalissimo</a> and three <a href="Field_marshal" title="Field marshal">field marshals</a>. On September 1, 84 of the 91 members in the Guangzhou parliament elected Sun Yat-sen as the generalissimo. They selected the leaders of the <a href="National_Protection_War" title="National Protection War">National Protection War</a> <a href="Tang_Jiyao" title="Tang Jiyao">Tang Jiyao</a> of the <a href="Yunnan_clique" title="Yunnan clique">Yunnan clique</a> and <a href="Lu_Rongting" title="Lu Rongting">Lu Rongting</a> of the <a href="Old_Guangxi_clique" title="Old Guangxi clique">Old Guangxi clique</a> as marshals, <a href="Wu_Tingfang" class="mw-redirect" title="Wu Tingfang">Wu Tingfang</a> as the Minister of Foreign Affairs, <a href="Tang_Shaoyi" title="Tang Shaoyi">Tang Shaoyi</a> as the Minister of Finance (abstained), Cheng Biguang as the Naval Minister, and <a href="Hu_Hanmin" title="Hu Hanmin">Hu Hanmin</a> as the Minister of Communications. Sun Yat-sen inaugurated on September 10, and appointed <a href="Li_Liejun" title="Li Liejun">Li Liejun</a> as the Chief of Staff, <a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9D%8E%E7%A6%8F%E6%9E%97" class="extiw external" title="zh:李福林">Li Fulin</a> as the Commander of the Guards, Xu Chongzhi as staff officer and <a href="Chen_Jiongming" title="Chen Jiongming">Chen Jiongming</a> as the Commander of the First Army.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Constitutional_Protection_War">Constitutional Protection War</h3></div>

<p>After the establishment of the Guangzhou Military Government, the north and the south of China were in confrontation. Among the supporters of Guangzhou Government, the militants in <a href="Guangxi" title="Guangxi">Guangxi</a> and <a href="Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a> were superior in strength. <a href="Hunan" title="Hunan">Hunan</a>'s Tan Yanxi, Zhao Tihuan and Cheng Chieng also supporting the Constitutional Protection Movement. With the support of <a href="Lu_Rongting" title="Lu Rongting">Lu Rongting</a> and the <a href="Guangxi_Army" title="Guangxi Army">Guangxi Army</a>, the Constitutional Protection Army defeated Duan Qirui's assault in November. Duan resigned as the North's prime minister as a result, leaving the post to Feng Guozhang. The north and the south were in a temporary armistice.

</p><p>Pressed by the <a href="Zhili_clique" title="Zhili clique">Zhili clique</a> and the <a href="Anhui_clique" title="Anhui clique">Anhui clique</a>, Feng Guozhang ordered <a href="Cao_Kun" title="Cao Kun">Cao Kun</a> to make war again on Hunan province in January and defeated the Constitutional Protection Army in April. However, after capturing Hunan, the Zhili commander <a href="Wu_Peifu" title="Wu Peifu">Wu Peifu</a> halted the attack on Guangdong and Guangxi province and had a peaceful settlement with the south in July. <a href="Xu_Shichang" title="Xu Shichang">Xu Shichang</a> also advocated peace negotiation when he was inaugurated as the president in October, which led to the end of the war.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reorganization_of_the_military_government">Reorganization of the military government</h3></div>

<p>Besides the Navy, Generalissimo Guards and twenty battalions of the Guangdong Army, Sun Yat-sen lacked strong support of military strength in the Guangzhou Military Government, and sometimes his order was only effective in the Generalissmo Government. Sun had thoughts of mutiny at once, hoping to overthrow the Guangxi influence, and had personally ordered the Navy to fire at the Guangxi headquarters at one time. Near the end of 1917, Lu Rongting, Tang Jiyao, Mo Rongxin and others along with Tang Shaoyi convened a conference, and they advocated recognition of Feng Guozhang's presidency and formation a united government.

</p><p>During 1918, Cheng Biguang aligned himself with the Guangxi clique, and was assassinated. The Extraordinary Session of Parliament was controlled by the Guangxi clique, and was restructured in May 1918 by replacing the office of generalissimo with a committee of seven executives consisting of Sun, <a href="Tang_Shaoyi" title="Tang Shaoyi">Tang Shaoyi</a>, <a href="Wu_Tingfang" class="mw-redirect" title="Wu Tingfang">Wu Tingfang</a>, and <a href="Tang_Jiyao" title="Tang Jiyao">Tang Jiyao</a> on one side and <a href="Lu_Rongting" title="Lu Rongting">Lu Rongting</a>, <a href="Cen_Chunxuan" title="Cen Chunxuan">Cen Chunxuan</a>, and <a href="Lin_Baoyi_(admiral)" title="Lin Baoyi (admiral)">Lin Baoyi</a> on the other. Feeling marginalized, Sun Yat-sen resigned as the generalissimo, and left Guangzhou for <a href="Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a>. The Guangzhou Military Government was now headed by <a href="Cen_Chunxuan" title="Cen Chunxuan">Cen Chunxuan</a>, the chief executive. Wu Tingfang's election as Guangdong's governor was nullified by Lu Rongting.

</p><p>From February to August 1919, the North and South held negotiations in Shanghai but they were stalled by Duan's sabotage. All MPs who did not attend the southern "extraordinary" session were disqualified and replaced. Parliament was adjourned by its Speaker <a href="Lin_Sen" title="Lin Sen">Lin Sen</a> on January 24, 1920, when a faction of MPs boycotted the assembly, depriving it of a quorum. Cen also suspended the salaries of the MPs. With the southern government effectively under the influence of the <a href="Old_Guangxi_clique" title="Old Guangxi clique">Old Guangxi clique</a>, the first constitutional protection movement was over.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Second_Constitutional_Protection_Movement">The Second Constitutional Protection Movement</h2></div>

<table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Second Constitutional Protection Movement</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of <a href="Warlord_Era" title="Warlord Era">Warlord Era</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td>January 1921<span style="display: none;"> (<span class="bday dtstart published updated itvstart">1921-01</span>)</span> – June 16, 1922<span style="display: none;"> (<span class="dtend itvend">1922-06-16</span>)</span></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location"><a href="Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">China</a></div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status">

Southern Government collapses</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;">

<p><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="Beiyang_government" title="Beiyang government">Beiyang government</a>

</p>

<ul><li><a href="Zhili_clique" title="Zhili clique">Zhili clique</a></li>

<li><a href="Fengtian_clique" title="Fengtian clique">Fengtian clique</a></li></ul></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em">

<p><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="Government_of_the_Republic_of_China_in_Guangzhou" title="Government of the Republic of China in Guangzhou">Guangzhou government</a>

</p>

<ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders and leaders</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;">

<span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="Xu_Shichang" title="Xu Shichang">Xu Shichang</a><br><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="Li_Yuanhong" title="Li Yuanhong">Li Yuanhong</a><br><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="Cao_Kun" title="Cao Kun">Cao Kun</a></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em">

<p>In Shanghai, Sun re-organized the Kuomintang to oust the Guangxi junta from the Southern government. The military governor of Guangdong, <a href="Chen_Jiongming" title="Chen Jiongming">Chen Jiongming</a> raised 20 battalions from <a href="Fujian" title="Fujian">Fujian</a>. In 1920, Duan and the northern parliament was ousted after the <a href="Zhili%E2%80%93Anhui_War" title="Zhili–Anhui War">Zhili–Anhui War</a>. Lu and Cen used this as a pretext to explore unification with the <a href="Zhili_clique" title="Zhili clique">Zhili clique</a>. The KMT denounced these secret negotiations and the southern parliament moved to Yunnan in August and in <a href="Sichuan" title="Sichuan">Sichuan</a> from September to October. Tensions between the <a href="Yunnan_clique" title="Yunnan clique">Yunnan clique</a> and the Guangxi clique allowed Chen to invade on August 11 in the <a href="Guangdong%E2%80%93Guangxi_War" title="Guangdong–Guangxi War">Guangdong–Guangxi War</a>. Chen Jiongming expelled the Guangxi clique from Guangzhou allowing Sun to return by the end of November.

</p><p>Parliament reconvened in Guangzhou in January 1921. Of the remaining four executives, Tang Jiyao had to remain in Yunnan to protect his province, Wu Tingfang was ailing, and Tang Shaoyi was becoming uninterested. In April 1921, the National Assembly dissolved the military government and elected Sun Yat-sen "extraordinary president". But the new Guangzhou government, without any foreign recognition, was beset with questions of legitimacy as its form existed outside of the constitution it was mandated to protect. For Chen Jiongming, Sun's extraconstitutional election was a power grab. Relations further deteriorated when Chen invited <a href="Anarchism_in_China" title="Anarchism in China">anarchists</a>, <a href="Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">communists</a>, and <a href="Chinese_federalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese federalism">federalists</a> to the movement. Chen thought it would swell their numbers but Sun believed they would dilute his ideology, the <a href="Three_Principles_of_the_People" title="Three Principles of the People">Three Principles of the People</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="End_of_the_movement">End of the movement</h3></div>

<p>Immediately after his inauguration in May, Sun ordered the <a href="Northern_Expedition" title="Northern Expedition">Northern Expedition</a> to force the unification of China. In the summer of 1922, Sun Yat-sen personally established the division headquarters in <a href="Shaoguan" title="Shaoguan">Shaoguan</a> to launch the expedition by coordinating the Guangdong, Yunnan, Jiangxi, and Hunan armies. Sun Yat-sen's Northern Expedition ultimately led to the conflict with Chen Jiongming. Chen Jiongming advocated suspension of military conflict, first building up Guangdong as a province of autonomy. Meanwhile, the Zhili clique started a national movement to reunite the Northern and Southern governments by having the two rival presidents resign in favor of a restored <a href="Li_Yuanhong" title="Li Yuanhong">Li Yuanhong</a>. In June, the Northern government's president, Xu Shichang stepped down, and the original National Assembly reconvened in Beijing. To Chen Jiongming, the Constitutional Protection Movement's purpose was achieved, but for Sun the new government was a smokescreen to mask <a href="Cao_Kun" title="Cao Kun">Cao Kun</a>'s rule. On June 16, the presidential palace was shelled by Chen's forces. Sun Yat-sen, <a href="Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a>, Chen Ce, and the loyalists were safely escorted by ship to Shanghai.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Impact">Impact</h2></div>

<p>Sun realized the failure of both movements was based on his over reliance on the military forces of others. After the debacle, Sun found that the revolution needed its own military strength. With the help of the <a href="Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> and the alliance with the <a href="Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a>, Sun retook the Guangzhou government for the third time in 1923. However, protecting the provisional government was not its purpose. Instead, building a strong military base centered on the <a href="Whampoa_Military_Academy" class="mw-redirect" title="Whampoa Military Academy">Whampoa Military Academy</a> and creating a <a href="Dang_Guo" title="Dang Guo">one-party state</a> to defeat the warlords was its goal. This was behind the success of the Northern Expedition that led to the reunification of China.

</p><p>Historical scholars fault the movements' reliance on legal campaign tactics. The National Assembly's extraordinary session lacked a <a href="Quorum" title="Quorum">quorum</a>. Practically from the beginning the military government was not set up by the procedures of legitimate constitutional law. It completely lacked foreign recognition. It could barely maintain unity within itself, let alone claim to be the legitimate government of all China. Simply by creating a rival government, the integrity of the Republic was damaged and set precedents for rival governments in China down to the current day.

</p><p>According to recent published studies, the first government in 1917 was funded by the <a href="German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a> which provided two million dollars because Sun had opposed China's entry into the First World War. The money allowed Sun to bribe the northern navy to defect and pay for the salaries of the National Assembly. He also used the money to buy the loyalty of the southwest due to the nearly mercenary nature of the warlords. Relations with the Germans became strained when it was revealed that they had supported the <a href="Manchu_Restoration" title="Manchu Restoration">Manchu Restoration</a> and that Sun refused to cooperate in the <a href="Hindu%E2%80%93German_Conspiracy" title="Hindu–German Conspiracy">Hindu–German Conspiracy</a>. With KMT activists being arrested abroad and Germany losing the war, Sun declared war against the <a href="Central_Powers" title="Central Powers">Central Powers</a> in the vain hope of garnering recognition and a seat at the <a href="Paris_Peace_Conference%2C_1919" class="mw-redirect" title="Paris Peace Conference, 1919">Paris Peace Conference</a> but the seat went to the <a href="Beiyang_government" title="Beiyang government">Beiyang government</a> instead. After the assassination of <a href="Tang_Hualong" title="Tang Hualong">Tang Hualong</a> by a Nationalist in Canada, several KMT overseas branches were banned. Sun Yat-sen also relied on gambling and selling <a href="History_of_opium_in_China" title="History of opium in China">opium</a> to pay for his government which lacked practical revolutionary spirit.

</p>

<ul><li><a href="Warlord_Era" title="Warlord Era">Warlord Era</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="History of the Republic of China">History of the Republic of China</a></li>

<li><a href="Military_of_the_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Military of the Republic of China">Military of the Republic of China</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

<ul><li>Degang, Tang. <i>The final 70 years of Latter Qing Dynasty: Yuan Shikai, Sun Yat-sen and the Xinhai Revolution</i>. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">

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</style><a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>957-32-3515-3</bdi></li></ul>

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</style><div id="22px_Warlord_Era_and_warlordism_during_the_Nanjing_decade_20px169" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span typeof="mw:File"></span> <a href="Warlord_Era" title="Warlord Era">Warlord Era</a> and warlordism during the <a href="Nanjing_decade" title="Nanjing decade">Nanjing decade</a> <span typeof="mw:File"></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;text-align:left;">1915–1924</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;text-align:left;">1925–1934</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;text-align:left;"><a href="List_of_warlords_and_military_cliques_in_the_Warlord_Era" title="List of warlords and military cliques in the Warlord Era">Factions</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;padding-left:0.8em;width:10em;"><div>

<table class="infobox" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1911–1914</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="Bai_Lang_Rebellion" title="Bai Lang Rebellion">Bai Lang Rebellion</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1913</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="Second_Revolution_(Republic_of_China)" title="Second Revolution (Republic of China)">Second Revolution</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1915</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="Twenty-One_Demands" title="Twenty-One Demands">Twenty-One Demands</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1915–1916</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916)" title="Empire of China (1915–1916)">Empire of China (Yuan Shikai)</a><br><a href="National_Protection_War" title="National Protection War">National Protection War</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1916</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="Yuan_Shikai" title="Yuan Shikai">Death of Yuan Shikai</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1917</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="Manchu_Restoration" title="Manchu Restoration">Manchu Restoration</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1917–1922</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1917–1929</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="Golok_rebellions_(1917%E2%80%931949)" class="mw-redirect" title="Golok rebellions (1917–1949)">Golok rebellions</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1918–1920</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="Siberian_intervention" title="Siberian intervention">Siberian intervention</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1919</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="Paris_Peace_Conference_(1919%E2%80%931920)" title="Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)">Paris Peace Conference</a><br><a href="Shandong_Problem" title="Shandong Problem">Shandong Problem</a><br><b><a href="May_Fourth_Movement" title="May Fourth Movement">May Fourth Movement</a></b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1919–1921</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="Occupation_of_Mongolia" title="Occupation of Mongolia">Occupation of Outer Mongolia</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1920</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="Zhili%E2%80%93Anhui_War" title="Zhili–Anhui War">Zhili–Anhui War</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1920–1921</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="Guangdong%E2%80%93Guangxi_War" title="Guangdong–Guangxi War">Guangdong–Guangxi War</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1920–1926</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="Spirit_Soldier_rebellions_(1920%E2%80%931926)" title="Spirit Soldier rebellions (1920–1926)">Spirit Soldier rebellions</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1921</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="1st_National_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="1st National Congress of the Communist Party of China">1st National CPC Congress</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1921–1922</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="Washington_Naval_Conference" title="Washington Naval Conference">Washington Naval Conference</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1922</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="First_Zhili%E2%80%93Fengtian_War" title="First Zhili–Fengtian War">First Zhili–Fengtian War</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1923–1927</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><b><a href="First_United_Front" title="First United Front">First United Front</a></b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1923</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="Lincheng_Outrage" title="Lincheng Outrage">Lincheng Outrage</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1924</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><b><a href="Second_Zhili%E2%80%93Fengtian_War" title="Second Zhili–Fengtian War">Second Zhili–Fengtian War</a></b><br><a href="Canton_Merchants'_Corps_Uprising" title="Canton Merchants' Corps Uprising">Canton Merchants' Corps Uprising</a><br><a href="1924_Beijing_Coup" title="1924 Beijing Coup">Beijing Coup</a></td></tr></tbody></table>

</div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;padding-left:0.8em;width:10em;"><div>

<table class="infobox" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1925</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="Yunnan%E2%80%93Guangxi_War" title="Yunnan–Guangxi War">Yunnan–Guangxi War</a><br><a href="May_Thirtieth_Movement" title="May Thirtieth Movement">May Thirtieth Movement</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1925–1926</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="Anti-Fengtian_War" title="Anti-Fengtian War">Anti-Fengtian War</a><br><a href="Canton%E2%80%93Hong_Kong_strike" title="Canton–Hong Kong strike">Canton–Hong Kong strike</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1926</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="Canton_Coup" title="Canton Coup">Zhongshan Warship Incident</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1926–1928</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><b><a href="Northern_Expedition" title="Northern Expedition">Northern Expedition</a></b><br><a href="Wuhan_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Wuhan government">Nanjing–Wuhan Split</a><br><b><a href="Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Nationalist-Communist Civil War</a></b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1927</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="Nanking_incident_of_1927" title="Nanking incident of 1927">Nanking incident of 1927</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1927</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="Shanghai_Commune_of_1927" title="Shanghai Commune of 1927">Shanghai Commune of 1927</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1927</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="Shanghai_massacre" title="Shanghai massacre">Shanghai massacre</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1927</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="July_15_Incident" title="July 15 Incident">July 15 Incident</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1927–1930</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="Muslim_conflict_in_Gansu_(1927%E2%80%9330)" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conflict in Gansu (1927–30)">Muslim conflict in Gansu</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1928</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="Jinan_incident" title="Jinan incident">Jinan incident</a><br><a href="Huanggutun_incident" title="Huanggutun incident">Huanggutun incident</a><br><a href="Looting_of_the_Eastern_Mausoleum" title="Looting of the Eastern Mausoleum">Looting of the Eastern Mausoleum</a><br><a href="Northeast_Flag_Replacement" title="Northeast Flag Replacement">Northeast Flag Replacement</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1928–1929</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="Red_Spears'_uprising_in_Shandong_(1928%E2%80%931929)" title="Red Spears' uprising in Shandong (1928–1929)">Third Red Spears' uprising in Shandong</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1929</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="Chiang-Gui_War" title="Chiang-Gui War">Chiang-Gui War</a><br><a href="Warlord_Rebellion_in_northeastern_Shandong" title="Warlord Rebellion in northeastern Shandong">Warlord Rebellion in northeastern Shandong</a> (incl. <a href="Beijing_Revolt" title="Beijing Revolt">Beijing Revolt</a>)<br><a href="Sino-Soviet_conflict_(1929)" title="Sino-Soviet conflict (1929)">Sino-Soviet conflict</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1930</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><b><a href="Central_Plains_War" title="Central Plains War">Central Plains War</a></b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1930–1932</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="Sino-Tibetan_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Sino-Tibetan War">Sino-Tibetan War</a> / <a href="Qinghai%E2%80%93Tibet_War" title="Qinghai–Tibet War">Qinghai–Tibet War</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1931–1935</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="Kumul_Rebellion" title="Kumul Rebellion">Kumul Rebellion</a> / <a href="Soviet_invasion_of_Xinjiang" title="Soviet invasion of Xinjiang">Soviet invasion of Xinjiang</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1932</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="Han%E2%80%93Liu_War" title="Han–Liu War">Han–Liu War</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1932</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="Two-Liu_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Two-Liu war">Two-Liu war</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1934</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="War_in_Ningxia_(1934)" title="War in Ningxia (1934)">War in Ningxia</a></td></tr></tbody></table>

</div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;padding-left:0.8em;width:10em;"><div>

<dl><dd><a href="Beiyang_Army" title="Beiyang Army">Beiyang</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Anhui_clique" title="Anhui clique">Anhui</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Zhili_clique" title="Zhili clique">Zhili</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Fengtian_clique" title="Fengtian clique">Fengtian</a> (<a href="National_Pacification_Army" title="National Pacification Army">National Pacification Army</a>)

<dl><dd><a href="Zhili_Army_(Fengtian_clique)" title="Zhili Army (Fengtian clique)">Zhili Army</a></dd></dl></dd>

<dd><a href="Shanxi_clique" title="Shanxi clique">Shanxi</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Guominjun" title="Guominjun">Guominjun</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Xinjiang_clique" title="Xinjiang clique">Xinjiang</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Yunnan_clique" title="Yunnan clique">Yunnan</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Sichuan_clique" title="Sichuan clique">Sichuan</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Old_Guangxi_clique" title="Old Guangxi clique">Old Guangxi</a></dd>

<dd><a href="New_Guangxi_clique" title="New Guangxi clique">New Guangxi</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Chen_Jiongming" title="Chen Jiongming">Guangdong</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Guizhou_clique" title="Guizhou clique">Guizhou</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang <span style="font-size: 85%;">(KMT)</span></a></dd>

<dd><a href="Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Communist Party <span style="font-size: 85%;">(CCP)</span></a></dd></dl>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China (1912–1949)</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2641005#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata646" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2641005#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata646" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Authority control databases </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh92004932">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007534518305171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lux.collections.yale.edu/view/activity/e47e4a9b-029f-4407-9ba2-c20d50e0b6e2">Yale LUX</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

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